The ecology of natural and livestock grazing - similarities and differences

Large vertebrate grazers play a central role in structuring and the functioning of many terrestrial ecosystems at high latitudes through selective grazing, consumption of large quantities of the primary production, increased rate of nutrient turnover and mechanical disturbances such as trampling.  Wild populations are regulated through birth and death rates that are affected by environmental factors, both biotic, density dependent factors such as predation, food availability and deceases and by abiotic factors such as weather. In contrast, the regulation of livestock populations is to a large extent decoupled from these natural environmental factors by humans and energy and matter is continuously removed out of the ecosystems through harvesting. These two situations can be viewed as extremes on a spectrum of herbivore population regulation by natural factors and human management. The ecological impacts of wild and livestock herbivores may therefore differ substantially and the transition from one ecosystem state to another will depend on the resilience of the grazed ecosystems.

One aspect of ecosystem resilience is the size of the local and regional species pools and the species diversity of biological communities. On a global scale, species pools of most species groups decline with latitude. Diversity differences between mainland (large species pools) and islands (small species pools) may, however, crosscut the global gradient. We can therefor expect ecosystem resilience to drop from low Arctic to the high Arctic bioclimatic sub-zones and within a zone from mainland to islands.

In this talk I will address the ecological implications of different degrees of herbivore management along latitudinal as well as mainland-island gradient. I will present results from perturbation experiments and observational studies from island ecosystems both in the high Arctic (mainly Svalbard) and the low and sub-Arctic (Iceland) with some comparisons with mainland studies.

The future of reindeer husbandry in Fennoscandia under global change

The Arctic region is forecasted to warm approximately twice as much as the Earth on average bringing about dramatic transformations in the northern ecosystems. Further pressure to the environment is imposed by changes in land-use by natural resources extraction and tourism, Moreover, simultaneously our societies convert towards urbanized, highly educated, service-based systems, where ever decreasing population will gain its livelihood from primary production. These processes bring about serious challenges to reindeer husbandry, as the livelihood is highly dependent on the diverse tundra environment, and deeply rooted in the indigenous Sámi culture. However, by smartly utilizing the migratory reindeer grazing system of the Sámi as a management tool, we might be able to sustain the high-albedo tundra and mitigate global warming, and support the livelihood against rapid external pressures.

Protecting and managing semi-natural grasslands

Challenges and innovations in public policy – from the European level to the local community

Semi-natural grassland is an important feature in many rural landscapes and the protection and management of semi-natural grasslands is an important issue in environmental policy. A brief overview of policy instruments available is presented.

Both intensification and abandonment of management represent a threat to biodiversity, cultural and aesthetic values and a number of policy initiatives have been taken throughout Europe in recent decades to regulate grassland management. The state of the art concerning European policy schemes for semi-natural grassland management is outlined and critically discussed.

Focusing on the local level current policy challenges and pathways towards more long term and more sustainable landscape management regimes are finally presented and discussed. Through a comprehensive example from a Danish saltmarsh area, future governance approaches to grassland management are discussed.

Happy cowboys and cowgirls, a necessity for future survival of semi-natural grassland

In cooperation with farmers, researchers, regional administration, municipalities and a national-wide food chain, WWF has worked with semi-natural grasslands for 25 years, in order to increase area, species survival, management and rewards from these species-rich areas. 30 000 ha were restored of which a majority still is maintained, new jobs were created and farmers involved increased their income by 700 million SEK during a decennium. We conclude that it is vital for the future survival of species-rich semi-natural grasslands to have farmers who can make a living from grazing-based animal production, sustainable and stabile environmental payments, and a market that asks for certified pasture beef, thus making semi-natural grassland a valuable resource for the farmer.

The challenge of improving our knowledge of European grasslands

EU nature and agricultural policy set ambitious targets for 2020. The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in its greening package includes the designation of environmentally sensitive permanent grasslands, which cannot be ploughed or converted, and the maintenance of the ratio of permanent grassland to the total agricultural area, which must not fall by more than 5% compared to the reference year. The EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 requires that CAP direct payments to reward environmental public goods such as permanent pastures are enhanced; moreover, it requires that 15% of degraded ecosystems are restored, and to promote the implementation of the Green Infrastructure.

Mapping and assessing grassland status and areal distribution is crucial to achieving such targets. Ongoing initiatives to identify, map and assess grasslands at EU level include remote sensing mapping at continental scale, recording at parcel level of CAP direct payments distribution, the set-up of an ad hoc point survey, the reporting of conservation status of grasslands protected under the EU Habitats Directive, the identification of High Nature Value farmland. Timing, access and use of such information, and remaining gaps are discussed in the presentation.

European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Directorate for Sustainable Resources, Ispra - IT

Policy dimensions of sustainable growth in agriculture and food production

The major future challenge for the agriculture and food sector is how to increase food production without endangering the future sustainability of production resources. Policies that are designed to improve sustainability in the sector are likely to involve a mixture of market-based and regulatory approaches. Policy options need to be assessed from the perspectives of effectiveness and efficiency, as well as their distributional implications.

Grasslands, future food demand and environmental impact

The livestock sector is increasingly competing with human consumption for edible grains and crop by-products, while the average herbage use efficiency is unlikely to have increased significantly since the 1960s. In the future grasslands could be relatively more resilient to climate change than arable crops, which could increase their role both as a feed source and as a global carbon stock. Reaching two major goals of our times, global food security and climate stabilization, will require increased investments in grassland improvement and restoration, in livestock health and production efficiency and a global convergence towards nutritionally balanced diets that have potential to reduce both chronic undernourishment and the incidence of metabolic diseases related to obesity. My presentation will outline opportunities to further increase food production through greater reliance on pasture-based systems of ruminant production.

Consumer and citizen expectations of grazing

Grazing affects the ecosystem services that agricultural landscapes provide to people. Grazing animals are a landscape element that has value for citizens as a public good. Moreover, outdoor access for animals and the use of natural pastures are important characteristics of meat product for consumers. Consumer and citizen attitudes toward grazing will be discussed.